Binghamton University Acceptance Rate, SAT/ACT Scores, GPA

Binghamton University is a public research university with an acceptance rate of 40%. Part of the State University of New York (SUNY) system, Binghamton University typically ranks among the  best public universities  in the country. For its strengths in the liberal arts and sciences, Binghamton was awarded a chapter of the prestigious  Phi Beta Kappa  Honor Society. The 887-acre campus features a 190-acre nature preserve, and the university has been recognized for its sustainability efforts. In athletics, the Binghamton Bearcats compete in the NCAA Division I  America East Conference. Considering applying to Binghamton University? Here are the admissions statistics you should know, including average SAT/ACT scores and GPAs of admitted students. Acceptance Rate During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, Binghamton University had an acceptance rate of 40%. This means that for every 100 students who applied, 40 were admitted, making Binghamton Universitys admissions process competitive. Admissions Statistics (2017-18) Number of Applicants 38,755 Percent Admitted 40% Percent Admitted Who Enrolled (Yield) 19% SAT Scores and Requirements Binghamton University requires that all applicants submit either SAT or ACT scores. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 97% of admitted students submitted SAT scores. SAT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile ERW 650 710 Math 660 730 ERW=Evidence-Based Reading and Writing This admissions data tells us that most of Binghamtons admitted students fall within the  top 20% nationally  on the SAT. For the evidence-based reading and writing section, 50% of students admitted to Binghamton scored between 650 and 710, while 25% scored below 650 and 25% scored above 710. On the math section, 50% of admitted students scored between 660 and 730, while 25% scored below 660 and 25% scored above 730. Applicants with a composite SAT score of 1440 or higher will have particularly competitive chances at Binghamton. Requirements Binghamton University does not require the SAT writing section or SAT Subject tests. Note that Binghamton participates in the scorechoice program, which means that the admissions office will consider your highest score from each individual section across all SAT test dates. ACT Scores and Requirements Binghamton University requires that all applicants submit either SAT or ACT scores. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 34% of admitted students submitted ACT scores. ACT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile Composite 28 32 This admissions data tells us that most of Binghamtons admitted students fall within the  top 11% nationally  on the ACT. The middle 50% of students admitted to Binghamton received a composite ACT score between 28 and 32, while 25% scored above 32 and 25% scored below 28. Requirements Binghamton University does not require the ACT writing section. Unlike many universities, Binghamton superscores ACT results; your highest subscores from multiple ACT sittings will be considered. GPA In 2018, the middle 50% of Binghamton Universitys incoming class had high school GPAs from 3.4 to 3.9. 25% had a GPA above 3.9, and 25% had a GPA below 3.4. These results suggest that most successful applicants to Binghamton have primarily B/B grades. Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph Binghamton University Applicants Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph. Data courtesy of Cappex. The admissions data in the graph is self-reported by applicants to Binghamton University. GPAs are unweighted. See how you compare to accepted students, see the real-time graph, and calculate your chances of getting in  with a free Cappex account. Admissions Chances Binghamton University is one of the most selective schools in the State University of New York (SUNY) system. Less than half of all applicants gain admission, and most admitted students have grades and standardized test scores that are well above average. However, Binghamton has a  holistic admissions process involving other factors beyond your grades and test scores. The Binghamton admissions folks will be looking at the  rigor of your high school courses, and not simply your grades. Success in challenging college preparatory classes such as International Baccalaureate, Advanced Placement, and Honors can strengthen an application significantly. At a minimum, Binghamton applicants should have completed a  core curriculum  that includes adequate science, math, English, foreign language, and social science classes. Binghamton will also be interested in seeing an upward trend in your grades during high school. The university accepts the  Common Application and the SUNY Application. Whichever application you choose to apply, youll need to write a  strong application essay. The university is also interested in learning about your  extracurricular activities, particularly leadership and talent related to non-academic pursuits. Finally, all applicants must submit a  letter of recommendation. Binghamton also has a Special Talent Review for students who want to showcase their talent in art, dance, music, speech and debate, or theater. In the graph above, the blue and green dots represent accepted students. The majority of successful applicants had high school averages of B or better, combined SAT scores of 1100 or higher, and ACT composite scores of 23 or better. Youll have a much better chance of getting an acceptance letter if your GPA is up in the A range. Youll see that there are quite a few red dots (rejected students) and yellow dots (waitlisted students) mixed in with the green and blue in all but the upper right corner of the graph. Quite a few students with grades and test scores that were on target for Binghamton University did not get in. At the same time, note that some students were accepted with test scores and grades a bit below the norm. All admissions data has been sourced from the National Center for Education Statistics and Binghamton Universitys Undergraduate Admissions Office.

Sexual orientation is the preferred term used when...

Sexual orientation is the preferred term used when referring to an individuals physical and or emotional attraction to the same and or opposite sex. Heterosexual, bisexual, homosexual and pansexual are all sexual orientations. An individuals gender identity and expression is distinct from their sexual orientation. Throughout life as the individual explores the world around them, they are shaped by the unique experiences and influences that are imparted upon them. All people experience life subjectively therefore there is no monolithic way of viewing or defining one’s sexual identity, however, there are particular experiences that may shape and develop specific characteristics or tendencies that a group of people may share. Andrew†¦show more content†¦As a result of having to develop in an oppositional environment the homosexual adolescent is forced to adapt in order to simply exist. This adaptation or pseudo-conformity becomes a survival skill needed to avert unwante d scrutiny. Children are influenced by markers placed in their environment in what is masculine and what is feminine from an early age. Through media, social training, and cultural traditions there is a precedent expectation that is often strictly imposed through what is known as the gender binary (which is based in traditional views/roles of men and women). Dr. Shawn M. Burn, a professor of psychology at California Polytechnic University discusses this highly debated issue in her column titled Understanding the Changing Landscape of Gender Identity published in Psychology Today. In this particular piece she assesses the evolving concept of identity through a psychological standpoint. Burn sees the gender binary as an inhibitive force that obstructs the development of self-expression to a damaging degree. 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Discuss X.25 and Frame Relay Essay Example For Students

Discuss X.25 and Frame Relay Essay ARPA, Internet and Internet2 CIS532 Strayer University 12/1/2013 Contents Abstract†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 What is the Internet†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 Computer Networking and Evolution of the Internet†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Packet Switching Technology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 X. 25 Technology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 6 Frame Relay Protocol†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 ATM Protocol†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 7 First Computer Network†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 Communication Protocols†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 0 TCP/IP†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦11 LAN†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 12 Internet2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 14 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 16 ABSTRACT Most of the people that use Internet today are not aware that Internet was not developed by a single person or a single company; in fact even less people know that Internet evolved from many technologies created by ARPA (Advanced Project Research Agency). Internet is a computer network made of many computer networks. Computer networking is a broad and complex field that does not have one single point of origin. It is the results of continuous evolution in computer technology. One of the first computer networks was ARPANET. US Government and its scientist like J. R. C. Licklider, Lawrence Roberts, Bob Kahn and Vint Ceft had vision to develop US into world’s technology leader. Their ideas with help of many organizations and individuals became reality and thank to them we are able to use today technology know as Internet. In last decade and half many universities, private companies and the U. S. government have been working together on echnology known as Internet2 or second generation Internet that provides faster and higher capacity network that is primarily used for research. What is the Internet? If you are information technology professional, you surely have been asked by non-technical person about the Internet. What is the Internet? How does it work? How do you access it? If you just say that the Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks that exchange data using a com mon software standard will mean nothing to a non-technical person. To answer these questions and similar once, you must first explain that the Internet was not invented by a single person or a single company, and the evolution of the Internet was not a result of the some overnight project, in fact it took at least three decades for all technologies to evolve into Internet. In fact the internet was result of the U. S. Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA or ARPA). Computer Networking and Evolution of the Internet Today’s Internet is result of USA determination to be a world leader in technology which was prompted after USSR lunched first artificial earth satellite in 1957. First step toward today’s Internet was done by Department of Defense which resulted in creation of ARPA (Advanced Project Research Agency) and appointment of J. C. R Licklider, as first head of this organization. J. C. R Licklider, was the first one to write about idea to have computers interconnected that will allow users to access data and programs from any site. The first computers that were built in the 1950 were known as mainframes and they were used only by Government or some University. These mainframes computers were serving dumb terminals and the only way to connect these dumb terminals with mainframe was through serial connection running on RS-232 interface, but there were also terminals that were not near mainframes computer and the only way to connect them was through Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). In October of 1965, Lawarence Roberts successfully connected TX-2 computer at MIT in Massachusetts to a Q-32 computer in California via direct phone line. From this test and similar tests ARPA learned that existing circuit-switch technology has limitation (i. . inefficiency of phone lines, existing network utility limited variety of interconnected devices). From this point on Lawarence Roberts worked with Leonard Kleinrock who in 1961 wrote paper on packet-switching theory. Packet Switching Technology Packet switching technology was born as alternative to the circuit switch technology that was not designed to handle voice traffic over long distance. Packet switching technology even after this many years of its initial development is still fundamentally the same and is the most effective technology for long-distance data communications. Data or messages that are put on packet switched network have no defined starting or ending points (unless data is less than 1000 octets) therefore message have to be broken into smaller blocks called packets. Switched network can be configured to deliver these packets in two ways: datagram or virtual circuit. †¢Datagram – each packet is treated independently and exit or destination nodes are responsible for putting packets back to their original order. †¢Virtual circuit – there will be pre-establish route and all packets are sent via this route. With packet switching, data are transmitted in short blocks, called packets. Each packet contains a portion of the user’s data plus some control information†. (STALLINGS, 2002) First packet switch standard was X. 25, but technology as Frame Relay and ATM are more dominant today. X. 25 Technology â€Å"First, X. 25 provided end-to-end flow control process that offered a high level of security and quality, even through analogue lines of lower grade. Second, X. 25 was designed for both point-to-point and switched communications. Third, rapid endorsement of X. 5 by PTTs around world created a true global service†. (DUNOGUE, 1995) Figure DTEs, DCEs and PSEs Make Up an X. 25 Network Note: Figure obtained from â€Å"Cisco Internetworking Technology Handbook†. Retrieved from http://www. cisco. com/en/US/docs/internetworking/technology/handbook/X25. html Frame Relay Protocol â€Å"Frame relay by definition is a protocol oriented, packet-switched technology offered by telephone companies and by function it is programmed software located at a telephone company, designed to provide more efficient digital connections form one point to another. It is emerging technology that will provide a faster, more cost-effective method for computer networking†. (CUTRIGHT GIRRARD, 1996) Figure A simple Frame Relay Network Connects Various Devices to Different Services over a WAN Note: Figure obtained from â€Å"Data Connect Enterprise†. Retrieved from http://www. data-connect. com/Frame_X25. htm ATM Protocol â€Å"Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), was developed as part of the work on broadband ISDN but is used in non-ISDN environments, where very high data rates are required†. (STALLINGS, 2002) Both ATM forum and ITU-T standardization body contributed to ATM development, ITU-T is responsible for its standardization and ATM forum for its applications. The base of ATM architecture is cell which is chunk of data that has fixed length. To better describe ATM architecture and functionality it is necessary to know that its functionality is mapped to the physical and data link layers of the OSI reference model. ATM reference model is composed of three layers: †¢Physical layer – manages medium-dependent transmission. †¢ATM layer – provides cell switching and routing services. ATM adaption layer – has two functions: a)Segmentation and reassembly of large data sets into ATM cells. b)Provide specific services for transport of different types of data. In addition to three layers ATM reference model consists of three planes: †¢Control plane – responsible for generating and managing signaling requests. †¢User plane – responsible for managing data transfers. †¢Management plane – made of two components: a)Layer management – manages specific functions (detection of failures and detection of protocol problems). )Plane management – manages and coordinates functions related to the complete system. Figure The ATM reference model relates to the lowest two layers of the OSI reference model. Note: Figure obtained from â€Å"What is a ATM? †. Retrieved from http://www. pulsewan. com/data101/atm_basics. htm ATM is connection oriented technology which means that before communication can take place on ATM network, a virtual circuit must be setup. If there are multiple virtual channel connections (VCC) with the same endpoint they can be grouped together and configured into virtual path connections (VCP). Alcohol Abuse EssayFurther technology development resulted in NCP replacement with TCP/IP protocol in 1983, as TCP/IP became favorite protocol it also resulted in ARPANET retirement and transfer to NSFNET (National Science Foundation) in 1990. NSFNET was replaced by CSNET (Computer Science Network) and in 1995 US Government transfer management of Internet to independent organizations: †¢ISOC – Internet Society †¢IAB – Internet Architecture Board †¢IETF – Internet Engineering Task Force †¢IRTF – Internet Research Task Force †¢ICANN – Internet Corporation For Assigned Names and Numbers †¢IANA – Internet Assigned Numbers Authority NSI – Network Solutions †¢Accredited Domain Name Registrars We can conclude that for today’s Internet is the most responsible ARPA and its scientist, they recognized that computers needed to be interconnected, but existing public switched telephone network was not adeq uate for it. ARPA’s scientist developed new switching technology and new protocols (X. 25, Frame Relay and ATM) that were able to handle more bandwidth at higher speed and better quality. After these innovations scientist were able to form computer networks known as LAN, which uses Ethernet technology and TCP/IP protocols. Connecting many LANs into one large network we have today’s Internet. Internet2 At the end of last decade issues such as security, spam, slow downloads were some of the problems with conventional Internet, which prompted new initiatives to develop the Internet of the future, better known as Internet2. In 1996 a group of 36 scientists got together in Chicago and discuss ideas how to develop and implement Internet2. At first Internet2 was administered by the University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development (UCAID), but today we have large number of universities, private companies, organizations and U. S. overnment laboratories working continuously on Internet2 technology to provide leading edge network capabilities and promote worldwide partnerships to support and enhance educational and research missions. â€Å"Internet2 has four primary areas of interest and development, according to it Web site: †¢High performance networks – networks that have high bandwi dth. †¢Advanced network applications – applications which improve collaboration among people and to provide interactive access to information and resources. †¢New network capabilities – †¢Middleware – examples are telecommunications software, messaging and queuing software†. MATIS, 2006) Internet2 is not new network that will eventually replace conventional Internet, although it is a separate physical network from conventional Internet. Interent2 is made up of several logically different but related networks: †¢Advanced IP network – this network support advanced networking protocols, multicast, IPv6. †¢Virtual circuit network – is dedicated bandwidth with optical paths between endpoints. †¢Core optical network. Conventional InternetIntenet2 †¢Is open and available to anyone who has a computer. †¢Is made up of old telephone lines. †¢Average cable mode moves data around 4 Megabits per second. Is only available to selected organization. †¢Is made up of large capacity fiber optic cables. †¢Moves data at 10 Gigabits per second. Before Internet2 is mesh with conventional Internet following needs to happen: †¢Must be backward compatible, since existing infrastructure will continue to be the access path to all non participants in Internet2. †¢Must provide ability that any node can communicate with any other node in a compatible transport format. †¢(IPv6) Internet Protocol version 6 must be backward compatible with IPv4. †¢Internet2 must enable application to support QoS. Interent2 needs to be affordable to large mass. References A Short History of the Ethernet, (n. d). Retrieved from http://bugclub. org/beginners/history/EthernetHistory. html Cisco Internetworking Technology Handbook, (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. cisco. com/en/US/docs/internetworking/technology/handbook/X25. html Cutright, P. , Girrard, K. (1996). Frame Relay. What does it mean ? Online 20 (3), 68. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. Digital History, (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. old-computers. com/history/detail. asp? n=23t=5 Dunogue, J. (1995). From X. 5 to ATM: The evolution of data networks. Telecom Asia, 6 (3), 28. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. Gromov, G. (2009). Roads and Crossroads of Internet History. Retrieved from http://www. netvalley. com/cgi-bin/intval/net_history. pl Internet2. (1997). Retrieved from http://eng. internet2. edu/97engineering. html Matlis, J. (2006). Internet2: Retrieved from http://www. computerworld. com. au/article/165527/internet2/ Oppenheimer, P. (2001). Top-Down Network Design, Indianapolis, IN: Cisco Press Rogers, S. (1999). Network+ Certification Study Guide, Berkeley, California: McGraw-Hill Stallings, W. (2002). Network Architecture and Analysis: Custom Edition (2nd ed. ) NJ: Pearson. The Internet, (n. d). Retrieved from http://www. livinginternet. com/i/i. htm Unuth, N. (n. d). Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching: Retrieved October from http://voip. about. com/od/voipbasics/a/switchingtypes. htm †¢ You must write a paper on the history of the Internet. The paper must be written in formal APA style, must be at least 8 pages of content in addition to a title page, abstract, table of contents, and citations page. Make sure you use descriptive headings within the content area. Your paper should include how the Internet was invented and evolved over time. Include ARPANET and all of the events on a timeline up to today, and you must describe the events in a way that a non-technical peson might understand. The networking protocols must be discussed, discuss Internet2 and its relationship to the conventional Internet. You must attach your paper as an MSWord doc file (not docx) to the link provided. Anyone submitting in any other format will receive no credit. Note that strict APA citation format is required. That means that any material that is not your own must be cited within the test area. If that is not done, I will asume that the material was copied and not cited. In that case, a zero will be awarded as a grade. In cases wwhere that has happened in the past, the student has failed the course. This means any line of material used from any other source must be cited. Answer Selected Answer: ElvirKaric_FinalExam_12192010. doc Response Feedback: Good job! However, for perfection, you must learn to make better use of transitions at the end of each section. Look at your first section as an example you summarize it very well; and introduce the idea that In fact the internet was result of the U. S. Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA or ARPA). In the next section, you follow on that idea; however, your first line in that section talks about . . . Today’s Internet is result of USA determination to be a world leader in technology which was prompted after USSR lunched first artificial earth satellite in 1957. When it sghould have mentioned DARPA or ARPA. Bottom line, the intro section must be tightly linked to how you closed the previous section; and this must be done in the first line of the section. Sunday, December 19, 2010 9:04:45 PM EST

The Group Theater Essays - Group Theatre, Clifford Odets

The Group Theater The Group Theatre began as a small company that provided actors and actresses with a means and a location to practice plays. Three people, Harold Clurman, Lee Strasberg, and Cheryl Crawford formed The Group Theatre. The Group Theatre escalated in 1931 and ended abruptly in 1941 ? prevailing through the years there were hits, periods of flops, financial straits, depressing inactivity, and spiraling to as glittering of a success as any on Broadway. This story however is also the story of growth and development throughout American cultural life in the thirties. The year is 1928, and the tedious beginning of The Group Theatre began when Harold Clurman answered the call of a real estate man, Sidney Ross, who was thinking of going into theatrical production and was seeking an aide of some kind. Clurman then contacted his friend, Strasberg, and the two of them outlined their ideas. The proposal was quite simple, they wanted to work on a play that had no formal production plans, but the work would be instructive to the actors, and a new theatre might be born of their modest efforts. After many weeks of rehearsals their play was viewed by an exclusive audience, and Waldo Frank, who had written the play advised Ross that the play should be run, the members reviewed the idea and came up with their own proposal?they would rehearse another play, and if the outcome was the same response they would head to New York. After six weeks they performed the play to about 100 people, and got the same response, however nothing happened, and the experiment was f inished. Cheryl Crawford urged Clurman to prepare for future by finding actors for their more permanent company. Some actors that were considered were Franchot Tone, Morris Carnovsky, Meisner, and others. Since The Group Theatre had no money, no plays, the meetings of the actors were to be entirely unofficial. The new idea of The Group Theatre was to establish a theatre in which the philosophy of life might be translated into a philosophy of the theatre. Also there were to be no stars in this theatre, not for the negative purpose of avoiding distinction, but because all distinction was to be personified in the production as a whole. Word got around that The Group Theatre was meeting and that it was a ?revolt? against The Theatre Guild and Clurman was questioned. When he explained the situation to Miss Helburn, the confrontation ended?as it turned out, the Guild agreed that The Group Theatre could rehearse The House of Connelly, and have one thousand dollars. Another contributor was Maxwell An derson, who gave The Group Theatre one thousand five hundred dollars, more later, and Edna Ferber, who contributed five hundred dollars as long as her niece Janet Fox could join the summer work. Fox lost her ambition, but Ferber gave The Group Theatre the money anyways. The Group Theatre found a location in Brookfield Center, Connecticut to rehearse, and all actors were given a notice that they were leaving in a few weeks ? it was the only contract anyone had, but no one ever asked for another. On June 8, 1931, twenty-eight actors, some wives, two children, and three directors left The Theatre Guild building for Brookfield Center, Connecticut. That first summer was a time of learning, there were tiffs between actors, especially with Franchot Tone, who was a well known actor on Broadway, the type of living style each actor had established over time, and with the mental state at which all actors were in. One example of a time when the mental state was profusely questioned was when the actors had gone to visit a nearby farmhouse and when they returned they were told that they would not rehearse because they were too relaxed to rehearse. None of the actors soon forgot that day. The Group Theatre didn't actually get the name The Group Theatre until August of 1931, when they returned to New York, when the three directors decided that that should be their name, since that is what they had always referred to it as. Their first production opening took place on the evening of September 23, 1931, at the Martin

Immigration in the United States of America

Immigration in the United States of America "Every immigrant who comes here should be required within five years to learn English or leave the country" said Theodore Roosevelt one of the forty four presidents of the United States. Nowadays, being a great empire in the international arena and the country full of opportunities America faces immigration from all over the world that in turn makes various problems within the country. It continues to be one of the controversial and divisive topics that involve hot debates. So talking about immigrants, it should be highlighted that immigrants comprise both legal and illegal ones. Any individual who resides in a country illegally and without any permission from authorities is known as an "illegal immigrant." However, undocumented immigrants are divided into several categories such as the individuals who entered the country illegally and others who came legally but overstayed the number of days that were permitted on their visa. By the date of visa expiration some people do not leave t he country deciding to take a risk in search of a better life thus violating visa rules and remain there holding a status of illegal immigrant simultaneously using all government services.September 11, 2001 attacks in New York City: View ...Regardless of type of individual both bring risk to the United States including waste of money on governmental services and domestic security.As it is stated in the book of Current Issues the United States has always benefited from the hard work and cultural diversity that new comers bring to the country which considers itself "a nation of immigrants." (Farrell, Tiffany 2006.) Nonetheless, the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001 committed by nineteen foreign-born men was the evidence of the fact that more attention should be paid to immigrants and more quotas should be introduced. In order to improve security the United States should place more restrictions on immigration, some...

The True History of the 3 Hole Punch and Its Inventor

The True History of the 3 Hole Punch and Its Inventor SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The hole punch was actually invented decades before it became a staple of modern offices. Read this guide to learn more about hole punch history, why the original inventor of the hole punch was contested, and how the hole punch has evolved over the centuries. Who Invented the Hole Punch? Who's the original hole punch history inventor? There were two original types of hole punches, and they were created for many of the same reasons hole punches are still used today. One type was used to punch a single hole in tickets to show they’d been used, and the other was used punch identical holes in paper to make it easier to keep them organized in a ring binder. For such a straightforward tool, hole punch history actually has some controversy. Three men registered patents for hole punches around the same time. Friedrich Soennecken Soennecken was a German entrepreneur who invented a number of things, including a new type of ink container, a style of calligraphy, and a pen nib. In 1886, he also invented the ring binder, and soon after, on November 14th, 1886, he registered a patent for a â€Å"paper hole maker for folders,† or what he called a Papierlocher fà ¼r Zammelmappen. His hole punch was placed on a desk and used a lever to punch two holes into paper. The paper could then easily be placed in the ring binder. Benjamin Smith About a year and a half before Soennecken filed for his hole punch patent, on February 24th, 1885, American Benjamin Smith received a US patent for a somewhat similar tool known as the Conductor’s Punch. Although Smith received his patent before Soennecken, he is sometimes not seen as the original inventor of the hole punch because his invention differed significantly from the three-hole punch often seen in offices today. Smith’s invention was handheld and used to metal pieces connected to a spring to punch a single hole in paper. It also included a receptacle to hold the small circles of paper it cut out. The Conductor’s Punch was used to by railway conductors to punch holes in train tickets (hence its name). Charles Brooks In 1893, American Charles Brooks received a patent for the Ticket Punch, an invention similar to Smith’s Conductor’s Punch. Both had a similar design, but Brooks’ Ticket Punch had a larger receptacle to hold paper cuttings, and the receptacle was also removable. Brooks is actually more well-known for a different patent he received, for a street sweeper. The street sweeper remains in use today, relatively unchanged from his original invention. So who is the real inventor of the hole punch? Most people label either Friedrich Soennecken or Benjamin Smith as the â€Å"father† of the hole punch. Soennecken supporters say that, because his invention is much closer to the modern-day three hole punch, he is the original inventor, while Smith supporters say that, because he received the first patent for a hole punch invention, he is the original inventor. For what it’s worth, when Google decided to celebrate the 131st anniversary of the invention of the hole punch, they based the anniversary off the date that Soennecken received his patent, a decision that received mixed opinions online. How Has the Hole Punch Evolved? The original hole punch designs are still used widely today, with only minor modifications. However, other hole punches have been developed in the 20th and 21st centuries. These include three- and four-hole punches, hole punches that can punch through thicker materials such as cloth or thin metal sheets, hole punches that cut different shapes such as stars or hearts for crafters, and electric hole punches. Summary: 3-Hole Punch History The hole punch history spans several centuries and countries. The first hole punch inventor was American Benjamin Smith who, in 1885, developed a handheld device that was used to punch a single hole in train tickets. German Friedrich Soennecken is widely seen as the first inventor of the three-hole punch, which he received a patent for in 1886. Since then, the basic design of hole punches hasn’t changed all that much, but new features have been added as they continue to be widely used in offices and homes across the world. What's Next? Have you heard the stories ofcamel spiders being fearsome, deadly predators?Is there any truth to those tales? Learn which camel spider myths should be debunked by reading our guide! What is Stockholm syndrome?Is it actually a real condition? We explain everything you should know about Stockholm syndrome and analyze famous cases. Love to draw?We've compiled 100 of the best easy drawing ideas to spark your creativity!

Ethical and Socially Responsive Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethical and Socially Responsive Business - Essay Example This enables the restaurant to maintain high social and ethical standards in the society where it carries out its business. This implies the restaurant must be accountable for the negative effects of its operations on the government, suppliers, consumers, the civil rights groups and churches within a given jurisdiction. The restaurant is committed to safeguarding the environment from pollution from its own business. Moreover, it has embarked on the creation of good social relations with the society around its location in order to gain an understanding and gather information on the impact of the restaurant’s activities on the social environment (Chipotle Mexican Grill, Inc, 2). This restaurant is known to incorporate its stakeholders in the decision making process. This gives the community a chance to give a credible contribution with regard to the restaurant’s social responsibility. Social responsibility has enabled the restaurant to have strong influence within its loc ality given its participation in provision of externalities to the society. The restaurant code of conduct with regard to insider information applies to its business. The activities of this restaurant are many given its competitive advantage as a food industry leader. The entity receives credit from various customers but insider information must be kept the restaurant’s secret all the time. This enables the restaurant to access financial aid. Moreover, this serves as a sales and marketing technique because a financially stable enterprise is considered favorable when its success strategies are not exposed. According to Carroll and Ann, compliance to the safeguarding of insider information requirement contributes in the market liberalization hence enabling the consumers to make informed decisions (38). It is involved in the handling of consumer issues. This has made many consumers and other stakeholders to identify with the restaurant hence outstanding performance in the sellin g of its foodstuffs. Moreover, the code of conduct pertaining to harassment and sexual abuse of women ensures that women are protected and appreciated hence female customers of Chipotle restaurant have increased. This has increased the overall returns of the restaurant (Chipotle Mexican Grill, Inc, 2). The anti-discrimination regulation anchored in the code is also relevant in the running of this restaurant. This offers the customers protection against any intimidation based on race or tribe hence increasing the restaurant revenue. Hancock asserts that anti-discrimination gives the stakeholders of the restaurant concerned an assurance of the safety of their resources (67). The requirement of the code pertaining to sexual harassment also boosts the customer relationship within the restaurant given that women feel more secure and accommodated. This boosts the revenue because of the influx of many ladies into the restaurant. Integrity is another aspect which is vital in the restaurant. This aspect has a high correlation to thrive in the restaurant business. The workforce must act in utmost good faith at all times in order to realize favorable performance results at the end of the financial period of the restaurant. The management also must exhibit transparency and good stewardship of the economic resources entrusted to them by the stakeholders. According to Carroll and Ann compliance to this requirement results in productivity and

Resource Based Analysis of Marks & Spencer Plc Essay

Resource Based Analysis of Marks & Spencer Plc - Essay Example The present research has identified that clothing stores of Marks & Spencer are the leading retailers in the UK market and specialize in providing women’s wears, lingerie, and menswear. Their food stores are also leading in the UK market due providing fresh foods which are of high quality. The marketing and distribution of their products into the various markets and stores is done by utilizing the service of huge wholesalers, online stores and through a telephone. The company’s stocks are registered in the London stocks exchange. This paper will first assess the importance of capabilities and how they contribute to the competitive advantage of the organization. Then, analyze Marks & Spencer plc resources and capabilities using ratio analysis, value chain and VRIN. Resource-based view (RBV) is a business model which holds that business can attain a massive competitive advantage over the rival businesses by utilizing their resources and capabilities properly in alignment with the environment of the business. This implies that the business should possess resources and capabilities which are superior to those of their rivals in order to attain the competitive advantage over them. This will prevent the rival businesses from replicating the resources and capabilities of the company thus declining their competitive advantage. Capabilities are used in resource-based view to indicate the ability of a firm to apply its resources effectively and efficiently with the sole aim of gaining the competitive advantage over the market. Strategies of a company are formulated to address the future productivity of the company. Strategies of a company are formulated to address the future productivity of the company. Strategies are formulated to address any occurrences and incidences in the market and how to respond to changes in the market due to pressures or influences which appear from time to time in the market. The first strategy utilized by M&S was the brand name.

The Great Gatsby Essay Example for Free

The Great Gatsby Essay Nick’s observation that Gatsby is more worthy than the other characters in The Great Gatsby is true. At first he is hesitant to take a stand or to judge those with whom he comes into contact however, he begins to find everything about New York disgusting. Daisy’s inability to think about anyone else but herself and her wealth tarnishes her actions making her worthless however Gatsby’s dreams and aspirations make him a much better person. The Wilsons careless and arrogant personalities makes them apart of the rotten crowd, inferior to Gatsby who takes into account others. In addition, Gatsby’s ability to be loyal and great is far more apathetic than Jordan’s carefree, dishonest approach to life. Despite Gatsby’s wealth, he is very different to the rambunctious, loud and superficial people who attend his parties. Therefore, it is evident that Nick’s view is predominantly valid and true. Daisy embodies a selfish and materialistic life whereas Gatsby has dreams and aspirations. Gatsby notes that Daisy’s voice is â€Å"full of money† which suggests she is like a physical object and can be attained. It also means that she does not represent a girl, but represents money. Fitzgerald intends to give an insight of the 1920’s and show how people were characterised by their social class and wealth. The term ‘selfish’ is used to describe how Daisy fulfils her own personal needs at the expense of others’. Daisy reveals her shallow obsession with materialism by crying over Gatsby’s shirts. As long as she owns â€Å"such beautiful shirts† it could be anyone she’s crying over. Gatsby’s willingness to make personal sacrifices for others elevates him to a greater level than Daisy. The phrase ‘materialistic’ is used to show that Fitzgerald has intended to lead the readers into thinking that Daisy is associated with light, purity and innocence. When Nick first meets Daisy and Jordan, he describes them â€Å"like silver idols, weighing down their own white dresses against the singing breeze of the fans† The phrase ‘silver idols’ expresses the beauty of the two wealthy girls. The ‘singing breeze of the fans’ symbolizes the carefree nature they both possessed. Gatsby’s dream is to win Daisy’s love, which he believed he could accomplish  however, Gatsby’s dream ‘died’. This reveals that it is evident that Daisy is selfish and materialistic, unlike Gatsby who works hard to reach his goals. The Wilsons are apart of the â€Å"rotten bunch† because they are arrogant and careless but Gatsby behaves in a selfless and passionate manner. The word ‘arrogant’ describes Myrtle because she acts with arrogance when Tom who is richer and more â€Å"elegant† than her husband and in a higher social class put her in her place. The shabby, crowded apartment in New York where Tom, Myrtle, Nick and a few others decide to have a party is cluttered with over-sized furniture. This reflects Myrtles working class status, her lack of refinement and materialism. It also symbolises the obstacle that Myrtle is faced when trying to reach Tom and the tangled web of deceit that is her affair with Tom. The word ‘caring’ describes Gatsby, as he is very careful about women. â€Å"He would never so much as look at a friends wife. This shows that he is not like everyone else and that he genuinely is a caring and compassionate character. Therefore, the Wilsons are apart of the â€Å"rotten crowd† and Gatsby is â€Å"worth the whole damn bunch put together† Compared to Jordan’s inability to be honest and caring, Nick refers to Gatsby as being loyal and great. Nicks refers to Jordan as being â€Å"incurably dishonest†. Fitzgerald uses the word ‘incurable’’ to suggest that it is ‘never ending’ or ‘perpetual’. Jordan is constantly lying throughout the novel. She lies about various things and even about ruining a borrowed car. While on a visit to the city with Nick, Daisy, Tom and Gatsby, Jordan is driving recklessly. When Nick confronts her about it she simply states, â€Å"they’ll keep out of my way† This shows just how careless Jordan is and how she assumes that the whole world revolves around her. The word ‘great’ is used by Fitzgerald to display what Nick thinks of him despite his flaws and to show that Gatsby really is worthy. Gatsby is ‘great’ because he takes initiative, is knowledgeable, works hard, is passionate, loyal and nice, has selfless actions and is romantic. Nick states â€Å"Gatsby turned out alright in the end†¦ it is what preyed on Gatsby, what foul dust floated in the wake of his dreams†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This means that everything Gatsby did was pure. Everything he did and every move he made for all for the love of Daisy. The word ‘  alright’ implies that regardless of everything, he had a true heart and he went to extraordinary length to accomplish his dreams. Tom and the people with whom Gatsby associates with including Klipspringer and the party goers who took advantage of Gatsbys hospitality and then showing him no respect are the foul dust that preyed on him. Evidently, this shows that Gatsby had a true heart whereas Jordan carried on living a careless and dishonest life. Despite his wealth, Gatsby is very different to the superficial fakeness of his guests who attend his parties. He does not really mingle or mix with them. He tends to be distant and introspective rather than joining into the party. Gatsby is much more closed than his guests. Some of the rumours that are told about Gatsby are that â€Å"he once killed a man† that he â€Å"was a German spy in the war†, that he is involved in shady deals involving the smuggling of alcohol, and that he is a great hero of war. At Gatsby’s party, two of the girls were wearing yellow dresses and when Daisy attended Gatsby’s party, she was wearing a yellow dress. The colour yellow symbolizes the flaws that the main characters begin to show throughout the novel. Yellow also represents the corruptness, moral decay, death and the false richness of Gatsby’s parties. Also, when talking to Pammy, Daisy states â€Å"Did mother get powder on your yellowy hair?† This ‘yellowy’ hair also categorises into the flaws of the main characters. The term ‘fakeness’ and ‘superficial’ is used by Fitzgerald to convey how Gatsby’s guests were. So many people attended these parties from all social classes. You do not need to be ‘artificial’ or ‘false’. Consequently, it is clear that people who attended Gatsby’s parties were distinguishably different to him. In conclusion, Fitzgerald exposes readers to distinguish the differences between the ‘rotten crowd’ and ‘worthy’ and ‘great’ people. Despite Gatsby’s wealth and success coming from illegal and dishonest means this all becomes immaterial when we realise his dedication to his dream, his loyalty and his honesty. Thus, Gatsby is worth the whole damn bunch put together.

Climate Change Essay -- Environment Environmental

Climate Change Introduction What is the oceans role in climate? The oceans play a vital and pivotal role in the distribution of life sustaining water throughout our planet. 86% of the evaporation that occurs on earth is over the oceans. The oceans are the planets largest reservoir of water transferring huge amounts of water around the hydrological cycle. In fact the oceans â€Å"dominate the hydrological cycle, for they contain 97% of the global water inventory† . The hydrological cycle can be disrupted by changes in ocean circulation that play such an important role on evaporation and precipitation. When the ocean circulation system changes it can change how much heat and rainfall is distributed around the world. Changes on a global scale can ultimately lead to flooding and long term drought in various regions. The big questions are can we monitor the oceans circulation and watch for climate changes? Can we predict what might happen if the ocean circulation changed dramatically? We have experienced majo r climate changes in the past; can we look for evidence of ocean change during these periods? The Conveyor Belt The global ocean circulation system is called the thermohaline circulation. Often called the ‘conveyor belt’ courtesy of Wallace Broecker who in an article for Natural History in 1987 had an artist draw a simplified version of the thermohaline circulation and called it the conveyor belt. Wallace Broecker is the Newberry Professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University. He has taught at Columbia since 1959, and his research interests include paleoclimatology, ocean chemistry, isotope dating and environmental science. He conducts much of his research in Columbia University's Lamont Doherty Earth O... ...’s for past as well as future. Computer models are limited partly due to the limits of current technology and the fact that there are so many factors to analyse. Some scientists believe we require a more detailed study of the sub-grid-scale processes in the ocean and others say we need to establish the oceanic equivalent of our MET office. It is fair to say that considerably more research and investment is required if we are to learn more about the fine balance of the atmosphere and the oceans. Global climate changes have had a devastating effect on societies in the past. Rapid climate change in Britain could grind the infrastructure to a halt and effect the economy drastically. Ecosystems, economies and societies adapt better to gradual change and our ability to predict what the consequences are of global warming or changes in the oceanic currents is very important.

Littlefield Lab Essay

Since the beginning the team decided to try an aggressive strategy to win the game, assuming a riskier position with higher potential benefits and costs. For that, it was necessary to identify key parameters of the process and design a dashboard to analyze the information and make decisions in a faster way. The key parameters we started monitoring were demand (jobs accepted), stations utilization and lead times of the entire process. The first goal was to balance the line and satisfying the demand. Demand analysis and its relation to order kits In order to predict the future flows of the demand and match the info with the kit orders we create a model in attempting to avoid stock breaks or overstocks and anticipate the purchase of machines. The model considered the median demand of last 2 weeks projected with the growth rate of those weeks. Utilization of stations and its relation to purchase machines In order to to satisfy the demand, generate equilibrium in the capacity of the 3 stations, and avoid bottlenecks to get the maximum profit with the contract 3, the purchasing of new machines were made when utilization of any station was steadely over 80% and was justified by the cost-benefit analysis. Cost-benefit analysis to purchase machines Considering a demand of 30, 60 & 90, the pay back time will be 29, 15 & 10 days on ideal conditions. Changing the contracts When the balance was achieved on the process, then we started to intervene contracts since contract 3 provides the best profitability when the Lab is able to accomplish a promised lead time of 0.5 days being careful of change to contract 2 or 1 if the promised lead time would not be accomplished due to the circumstantial conditions of the process. To optimize the profitability of the jobs received on the first day of every week, we began to modify the contracts according to the following criteria: – Contract 1: If machine 1 had more than 3 jobs waiting for kits on last day of the previous week. – Contract 2: If machine 1 had between 1 to 3 jobs waiting  for kits on last day of the previous week. – Contract 3: If machine 1 had 0 jobs waiting for kits on last day of the previous week. Finally, on day 150 we try an â€Å"all in† strategy spending $160.000 in 1 machine for station 1 and 2 to increase the capacity and to process jobs only on conditions of con tract 3. This decision was taken based on a demand of 91 jobs and a utilization of station 1 of 0.83 between days 143 and 149. Profits analysis The table shows the sources and uses of cash including the analysis of main items. Description Amount, $ Comments Starting Cash + 1.000.000 Revenue +2.770.670 – 493, 226 & 1981 jobs were accepted under contract 1, 2 & 3 respectively. – $ 3.072.000 was the maximum possible revenue. (Calculations: 493 x $ 750 + 226 x $ 1.000 + 1.981 x $ 1.250) – $ 301.220 were lost for non-fulfillment of the contracts. (Calculations: $ 3.072.000 – 2.770.670) Interest +81.993 Station purchases -560.000 – 4 stations N º1 were bought on days 61,115, 141 and 150. – 2 stations N º2 were bought on days 116 and 150. All stations were bought at a certain time which ensures that the investment were payed back before the day 314 considering a pay back period 10-29 days for each station (see cost-benefit analysis). Inventory -1.704.600 – 2.841 kits were bought (including kits ordered by default). – 2.566 kits were ordered on the review period corresponding to day 7. – 2.700 jobs were accepted. Inefficiencies: – 134 kits were needed but not ordered (2.700-2.566 kits). They represent maximum losses of $ 167.500 (134 x $ 1.250) – 141 kits were ordered but not needed (2.841-2.700 kits). They represent losses of $ 84.600 (141 x $ 600) Cash Balance 1.588.064 The cash balance shows that investments on machines and kits were payed back but was not possible to get a better profitability because orders were only 80/week instead 91/week as we predicted on day 150. Conclusion – The Lab purchased the first 4 machines too late, so the up-grade of the process and the pay back of the investments were got too late, affecting profits. – The Lab should not have purchased last 2 machines (station 1 &2), since they were not needed to serve 80 orders/week (demand after day 150 was overestimated). It would have saved $ 160.000. – The contracts were not changed on time, so because of that there was a maximum lost of $ 301.220. – The kits were ordered including the number of jobs waiting for kits at the end of each week, because we do not realize that they were ordered by default. It would saved a maximum of $ 84.600. – The Lab should have worked with LIFO instead FIFO system considering that kits queued for station 1 were mostly already late to be ready at the lead time of 0.5 days under contract 3.

Binge Drinking Must be Stopped Essay

The article Binge Drinking Must be Stopped written by, Harvard University lecturer and principal investigator of the College Alcohol Study, Henry Wechsler is primarily a study about alcohol drinking in American colleges. Wechsler argues that drink bingeing is highly common in the colleges of America. He says that â€Å"binge drinking is a reality of college life in America and perhaps the central focus of fraternity-house life. † This is deemed to be true by Wechsler because of; (1) the administrator’s lack of knowledge about this issue of college alcohol bingeing, (2) the adaptation of colleges to the culture of college drinking, (3) the lack of continuity in the programs provided and (4) and implementations of policies imposed on colleges are not monitored effectively. Wechsler says that the culture of American colleges, while entangled with a reputation of widespread alcoholic drinking, does not alarm college administrators for they claim complete unawareness to the current situation of the alcohol issues within their students. Wechsler, being a prominent staff in the Harvard School of Public Health, reports that the department has exhausted its effort in getting feedback from the school administrators. However, he insinuates that there can be no reason to be completely blanked out in the issue of drinking situation. He supports this through various circumstances where people can easily witness the reality of college life and drink bingeing. One instance that Wechsler contributes where the scenario of heavy drinking in colleges can be observed is through the weeknight rounds of security vans monitoring places where they often get hold of worn out students from parties. Another, he says, is through the response of freshmen students on their knowledge of this alcohol bingeing college lifestyle despite of their just recent arrival to the university. Wechsler then argues that if security personnel and freshmen can easily become aware of this then there can be no reason for college administrators to be completely unwary of the situation. He adds that the problem is rooted from the grassroots themselves, who are the students, and the superior officers, who are the school administrators and the local officials. Just like any other person struggling with alcohol, Wechsler asserts that students should be reminded that excessive drinking is a problem and that although it is quite common in college, it can never mean that it is acceptable. School administrators, on the other hand, including college superiors and dorm supervisors should fulfill their responsibilities in watching the students over. Wechsler complains that school administrators are lenient in permitting their students in conducting activities which overtly promotes drink bingeing. Also, Wechsler advises that regulations on drinking should be heavily imposed and not neglected. He says that â€Å"it is easy to say there is no drinking allowed in a dormitory or a fraternity, but enforcement is necessary to put the policy into effect. † Wechsler then asserts that this not a new issue in America thus there is a great need for everyone to address it. â€Å"This is no longer a time merely to form a committee to study the situation,† he says. Now, Wechsler suggests that everyone participate in eradicating this issue within American colleges from the school administrators, the fraternity and sorority systems, the community officials, the parents of the students, and the students themselves.

Free Essays on Miller Marketing

Advertising Techniques of American Breweries: A Look at Miller Inc. Rolling Stone magazine is one of the most recognizable and ad promoting magazines in the United States. Beer companies have placed many advertisements in this magazine, especially the Miller Brewing Company. One Miller ad in particular seemed to protrude with a sixties like rock and roll attitude. This ad, in general, directed its main focus towards the Miller Brewing Company. Along with the advertisements groovy sixties style, it also blended a rock type atmosphere with the intentions of selling its product, Miller Beer. Reading through a magazine like Rolling Stone, it can be quite easy to catch oneself falling into the trap of reading a well thought out ad like this one. When first glancing at the ad, there is an unmistakable format of sixties style text at the top of the page which reads, â€Å"Rock without ROOTS, that’s like beer without taste.† The main focus of interest of the ad is immediately given away with this one simple sentence at the beginning of the page. While glancing down the ad, there were many noticeable rock artists. The artists included were Lenny Kravitz, Bo Diddley, Slash, James Brown, Doors of the 21st Century and Cheap Trick. Each picture of the artists had a sixties style border, with the same look as the font of the beginning text of the ad. Located at the bottom of the ad is the text â€Å"From the pages of Rolling Stone to New York’s Roseland Ballroom, Miller salutes a summer of legendary artists and the 50th Anniversary of rock.† This statement is saying that Miller Inc. is officially saluting Rock and Roll’s 50th Anniversary and its Legendary Artists of 2004. The ad also includes one of Millers slogans at the bottom left of the page which simply says, â€Å"Live Responsibly†. The other slogan, at the bottom right, features a bottle of Miller Lite and Miller Genuine Draft with the slogan â€Å"MILLER, Good... Free Essays on Miller Marketing Free Essays on Miller Marketing Advertising Techniques of American Breweries: A Look at Miller Inc. Rolling Stone magazine is one of the most recognizable and ad promoting magazines in the United States. Beer companies have placed many advertisements in this magazine, especially the Miller Brewing Company. One Miller ad in particular seemed to protrude with a sixties like rock and roll attitude. This ad, in general, directed its main focus towards the Miller Brewing Company. Along with the advertisements groovy sixties style, it also blended a rock type atmosphere with the intentions of selling its product, Miller Beer. Reading through a magazine like Rolling Stone, it can be quite easy to catch oneself falling into the trap of reading a well thought out ad like this one. When first glancing at the ad, there is an unmistakable format of sixties style text at the top of the page which reads, â€Å"Rock without ROOTS, that’s like beer without taste.† The main focus of interest of the ad is immediately given away with this one simple sentence at the beginning of the page. While glancing down the ad, there were many noticeable rock artists. The artists included were Lenny Kravitz, Bo Diddley, Slash, James Brown, Doors of the 21st Century and Cheap Trick. Each picture of the artists had a sixties style border, with the same look as the font of the beginning text of the ad. Located at the bottom of the ad is the text â€Å"From the pages of Rolling Stone to New York’s Roseland Ballroom, Miller salutes a summer of legendary artists and the 50th Anniversary of rock.† This statement is saying that Miller Inc. is officially saluting Rock and Roll’s 50th Anniversary and its Legendary Artists of 2004. The ad also includes one of Millers slogans at the bottom left of the page which simply says, â€Å"Live Responsibly†. The other slogan, at the bottom right, features a bottle of Miller Lite and Miller Genuine Draft with the slogan â€Å"MILLER, Good...

Quoting Copyrighted Work

Quoting Copyrighted Work Quoting Copyrighted Work Quoting Copyrighted Work By Jacquelyn Landis One of the most common questions writers have is, how much of someone else’s work can you quote without securing reprint permission? Can you quote a stanza from a poem? A paragraph from a magazine article? A page from a novel? Unfortunately, the answer isn’t as clear as we might wish. It lies somewhere within the fair use doctrine of U.S. copyright law. The original intent of copyright law was to protect a writer’s work from someone else using and profiting from it. The framers of this law, however, didn’t want it to be so rigid that it prevented reasonable public use of copyrighted works. Hence, the fair use doctrine was written. In a nutshell, these are the factors you must consider when deciding whether it’s okay to quote without permission: 1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes. 2. The nature of the copyrighted work. 3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole. 4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the copyrighted work. (U.S. Code, Title 17, Section 107) As you can see, these factors are not clearly defined. A common myth is that writers are free to use 400 words from a book, 50 words from an article, or two lines from a poem or song, and it constitutes fair use. This is not true. In reality, fair use can only be determined by the court. And if you’re already in court, you’re in trouble. Song lyrics are particularly troublesome as the music industry is aggressive about protecting songwriters. Typically, you need reprint permission to use even a single line from a song. What this means to writers is that you should always be mindful of the fair use doctrine and take great care to seek reprint permission if you have any doubt. Furthermore, anytime you quote from someone else’s work, be sure to properly attribute it. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the General category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:10 Rules for Writing Numbers and Numerals50 Diminutive Suffixes (and a Cute Little Prefix)30 Words Invented by Shakespeare

Head Collaborative Cultures and Organizational Competence Article

Head Collaborative Cultures and Organizational Competence - Article Example The informal coming allows teachers to improve teaching and learning. The author concludes that collaborative culture is based on close cooperation between all members of the group and team. Also, Sergiovanni underlines the importance of leadership and management in teaching practice. Teachers and administrators need to recognize where they fit in and what it takes to get along in this culture and the society (institutions, roles, relationships, structures) which has arisen from and in turn affects this culture. A special role played by division directors who control and manage all resources and teaching process.     Ã‚  Ã‚   The main principles of successful organizing are the principle of cooperation, the principles of empowerment, the principle of accountability and the principle of responsibility.  Ã‚   From this perspective, schooling is at heart a cultural-social event and only makes sense if the cultural circumstance, over time, including projections into the future, is taken into account. All this is to say that often what is going on in education is school people talking to one another with inadequate attention to what America is about or where America has come from. It is important to stress this commitment to freedom because we have grown up in a time in which there has been both political and social concern for issues of social justice and equity of treatment and outcome. Also important is the ability to take powerful action alone and in collaboration with others. Without efficacy, without the ability to make things happen, an individual is not free. Opportunity and capacity are important ingredients of successful performance. These factors are supported and related to such issues as trust among group members, group identity, and group efficiency. The author sums up that team approach is successful because it helps to maintain trust and cooperation atmosphere among all members.   Individualism, in sum, encourages one to be the one-of-a-kind person he or she is. But important to remember, in this culture individualism is more a matter of extending an invitation and granting of an opportunity than providing assurance that one will actually live out one's uniqueness. At best, education in this country is of a kind that encourages and contributes to the development of individual persons, not walking cliches or interchangeable cogs in a social/cultural machine.

Fair trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fair trade - Essay Example World trade has been increasing at an average rate of six percent for the last 20 years, which is twice the rate of world output. The integration of the world economy with the help of trade has lifted the living standards of the people within these developing nations, which is a positive sign. Sustained and consistent economic growth requires policies that can open trade and investment with the rest of the world. There is proof to it and it is that there has not been a single nation that has achieved economic stability without being open to the world for trade. International trade requires liberalization, i.e., openness to all and sundry within the world no matter what. The living standards are in direct proportion with them. There is a high need to promote and liberalize the manner in which trade is carried out within the world economy. It needs to be more generous to everyone and anyone as well as helpful for the developing nations so that more and more trade is carried out between the economic world markets. (Miles, 2006) Agriculture is one such example of being more liberal for the international trade market. Liberalization by both industrial and developing nations is necessary to realize trade’s potential that acts as a driving force for economic growth and de velopment. It is up to the industrial and developed nations to be more broadminded towards the developing ones so that trade barriers are removed in the wake of open trade between all the countries listed in the economic world. Fair trade is a social movement which is organized in nature and it basically presents a model which is accepted worldwide. It comes directly under the norms of the international trade regimes whereby it promotes payment of a fair price in accordance with the social and environmental standards in different areas of production related with goods and supplies. Fair trade has the emphasis on exporting goods and

Teaching Demonstration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Teaching Demonstration - Essay Example This enhances their acquisition of actual meaning. Each 5x7 card will have a picture on it of the noun or verb (thing or action) that the player will try to communicate to the class. The target word will be under the picture on the card. The forbidden words will be listed on the card with light red lines through them in a X (crossed out). The teacher will ask students for synonyms and related words and write them on the board. Then the teacher will cross out the words with an X to show that these words are â€Å"taboo†. The class will discuss what â€Å"taboo† means. Teacher: This is the target word. (Teacher points to the word Truck.) These crossed out words in red are â€Å"taboo†. You cannot use them. Who can think of other words you can use to get someone to say this word without seeing the picture? Raise your hand and I will call on you. The teacher should carry on demonstrating and maybe using a student or two and helping them until the class becomes very involved. Points can be given to each student who successfully communicates a word. Each student to guess the word becomes the next communicator. The lesson can be timed or limited by the number of cards available. When all of the allotted cards are used or time runs out the student with the most points is the winner. The game can also be played by dividing the students into two teams and alternating players in the same way or simply having each team member take a turn as communicator. This game is fun and easy to prepare. Even the students can make their own cards for the game and each team can contribute a set of cards for the game. Hu (2002) said that traditional teaching methods with grammar and vocabulary drill and practice â€Å"failed to develop an adequate level of communicative competence (i.e. the ability to use the target language for authentic communication)†. With this game two things are accomplished: 1) the students are

The Concept of Probability in Mathematics

The Concept of Probability in Mathematics Probability is a way of expressing knowledge or belief that an event will occur or has occurred. The concept has been given an exact mathematical meaning in probability theory, which is used extensively in such areas of study as mathematics, statistics, finance, gambling, science, and philosophy to draw conclusions about the likelihood of potential events and the underlying mechanics of complex systems. The word probability does not have a consistent direct definition. In fact, there are two broad categories of probability interpretations, whose adherents possess different views about the fundamental nature of probability. The word Probability derives from Latin word probabilitas that can also mean probity, a measure of the authority of a witness in a legal case in Europe, and often correlated with the witnesss nobility. In a sense, this differs much from the modern meaning of probability, which, in contrast, is used as a measure of the weight of empirical evidence, and is arrived at from inductive reasoning and statistical inference. History: The scientific study of probability is a modern development. Gambling shows that there has been an interest in quantifying the ideas of probability for millennia, but exact mathematical descriptions of use in those problems only arose much later. According to Richard Jeffrey, Before the middle of the seventeenth century, the term probable meant approvable, and was applied in that sense, univocally, to opinion and to action. A probable action or opinion was one such as sensible people would undertake or hold, in the circumstances.[4] However, in legal contexts especially, probable could also apply to propositions for which there was good evidence. Aside from some elementary considerations made by Girolamo Cardano in the 16th century, the doctrine of probabilities dates to the correspondence of Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal (1654). Christiaan Huygens (1657) gave the earliest known scientific treatment of the subject. Jakob Bernoullis and Abraham de Moivres Doctrine of Chances (1718) treated the subject as a branch of mathematics. See Ian Hackings The Emergence of Probability and James Franklins The Science of Conjecture for histories of the early development of the very concept of mathematical probability. The theory of errors may be traced back to Roger Cotes but a memoir prepared by Thomas Simpson in 1755 (printed 1756) first applied the theory to the discussion of errors of observation. The reprint (1757) of this memoir lays down the axioms that positive and negative errors are equally probable, and that there are certain assignable limits within which all errors may be supposed to fall; continuous errors are discussed and a probability curve is given. Pierre-Simon Laplace (1774) made the first attempt to deduce a rule for the combination of observations from the principles of the theory of probabilities. He represented the law of probability of errors by a curve y = à Ã¢â‚¬  (x), x being any error and y its probability.He also gave (1781) a formula for the law of facility of error (a term due to Lagrange, 1774), but one which led to unmanageable equations. Daniel Bernoulli (1778) introduced the principle of the maximum product of the probabilities of a system of concurrent errors. The method of least squares is due to Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805), who introduced it in his New Methods for Determining the Orbits of Comets. In ignorance of Legendres contribution, an Irish-American writer, Robert Adrain, editor of The Analyst (1808), first deduced the law of facility of error, h being a constant depending on precision of observation, and c a scale factor ensuring that the area under the curve equals 1. He gave two proofs, the second being essentially the same as John Herschels (1850). Gauss gave the first proof which seems to have been known in Europe (the third after Adrains) in 1809. Further proofs were given by Laplace (1810, 1812), Gauss (1823), James Ivory (1825, 1826), Hagen (1837), Friedrich Bessel (1838), W. F. Donkin (1844, 1856), and Morgan Crofton (1870). Other contributors were Ellis (1844), De Morgan (1864), Glaisher (1872), and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1875). Peterss (1856) formula for r, the probable error of a single observation, is well known. In the nineteenth century authors on the general theory included Laplace, Sylvestre Lacroix (1816), Littrow (1833), Adolphe Quetelet (1853), Richard Dedekind (1860), Helmert (1872), Hermann Laurent (1873), Liagre, Didion, and Karl Pearson. Augustus De Morgan and George Boole improved the exposition of the theory. Andrey Markov introduced the notion of Markov chains (1906) playing an important role in theory of stochastic processes and its applications. The modern theory of probability based on the measure theory was developed by Andrey Kolmogorov (1931). On the geometric side, contributors to The Educational Times were influential. Types of probability: There are basically four types of probabilities, each with its limitations. None of these approaches to probability is wrong, but some are more useful or more general than others. Classical Probability: The classical interpretation owes its name to its early and august pedigree. Championed by Laplace, and found even in the works of Pascal, Bernoulli, Huygens, and Leibniz, it assigns probabilities in the absence of any evidence, or in the presence of symmetrically balanced evidence. The classical theory of probability applies to equally probable events, such as the outcomes of tossing a coin or throwing dice; such events were known as equipossible. probability = number of favourable equipossibilies / total number of relevant equipossibilities. Logical probability: Logical theories of probability retain the classical interpretations idea that probabilities can be determined a priori by an examination of the space of possibilities. Subjective probability: A probability derived from an individuals personal judgment about whether a specific outcome is likely to occur. Subjective probabilities contain no formal calculations and only reflect the subjects opinions and past experience. Subjective probabilities differ from person to person. Because the probability is subjective, it contains a high degree of personal bias. An example of subjective probability could be asking New York Yankees fans, before the baseball season starts, the chances of New York winning the world series. While there is no absolute mathematical proof behind the answer to the example, fans might still reply in actual percentage terms, such as the Yankees having a 25% chance of winning the world series. In everyday speech, we express our beliefs about likelihoods of events using the same terminology as in probability theory. Often, this has nothing to do with any formal definition of probability, rather it is an intuitive idea guided by our experience, and in some cases statistics. Some Of the Examples Of Probability: X says Dont buy the avocados here; about half the time, theyre rotten. X is expressing his belief about the probability of an event that an avocado will be rotten based on his personal experience. Y says I am 95% certain the capital of Spain is Barcelona. Here, the belief Y is expressing is only a probability from his point of view, because only he does not know that the capital of Spain is Madrid (from our point of view, the probability is 100%). However, we can still view this as a subjective probability because it expresses a measure of uncertainty. It is as though Y is saying in 95% of cases where I feel as sure as I do about this, I turn out to be right. Z says There is a lower chance of being shot in Omaha than in Detroit. Z is expressing a belief based (presumably) on statistics. Dr. A says to Christina, There is a 75% chance that you will live. Dr. A is basing this off of his research. Probability can also be expressed in vague terms. For example, someone might say it will probably rain tomorrow. This is subjective, but implies that the speaker believes the probability is greater than 50%. Subjective probabilities have been extensively studied, especially with regards to gambling and securities markets. While this type of probability is important, it is not the subject of this book. There are two standard approaches to conceptually interpreting probabilities. The first is known as the long run (or the relative frequency approach) and the subjective belief (or confidence approach). In the Frequency Theory of Probability, probability is the limit of the relative frequency with which an event occurs in repeated trials (note that trials must be independent). Frequentists talk about probabilities only when dealing with experiments that are random and well-defined. The probability of a random event denotes the relative frequency of occurrence of an experiments outcome, when repeating the experiment. Frequentists consider probability to be the relative frequency in the long run of outcomes. Physical probabilities, which are also called objective or frequency probabilities, are associated with random physical systems such as roulette wheels, rolling dice and radioactive atoms. In such systems, a given type of event (such as the dice yielding a six) tends to occur at a persistent rate, or relative frequency, in a long run of trials. Physical probabilities either explain, or are invoked to explain, these stable frequencies. Thus talk about physical probability makes sense only when dealing with well defined random experiments. The two main kinds of theory of physical probability are frequentist accounts and propensity accounts. Relative frequencies are always between 0% (the event essentially never happens) and 100% (the event essentially always happens), so in this theory as well, probabilities are between 0% and 100%. According to the Frequency Theory of Probability, what it means to say that the probability that A occurs is p% is that if you repeat the experiment over and over again, independently and under essentially identical conditions, the percentage of the time that A occurs will converge to p. For example, under the Frequency Theory, to say that the chance that a coin lands heads is 50% means that if you toss the coin over and over again, independently, the ratio of the number of times the coin lands heads to the total number of tosses approaches a limiting value of 50% as the number of tosses grows. Because the ratio of heads to tosses is always between 0% and 100%, when the probability exists it must be between 0% and 100%. In the Subjective Theory of Probability, probability measures the speakers degree of belief that the event will occur, on a scale of 0% (complete disbelief that the event will happen) to 100% (certainty that the event will happen). According to the Subjective Theory, what it means for me to say that the probability that A occurs is 2/3 is that I believe that A will happen twice as strongly as I believe that A will not happen. The Subjective Theory is particularly useful in assigning meaning to the probability of events that in principle can occur only once. For example, how might one assign meaning to a statement like there is a 25% chance of an earthquake on the San Andreas fault with magnitude 8 or larger before 2050? It is very hard to use either the Theory of Equally Likely Outcomes or the Frequency Theory to make sense of the assertion. Bayesians, however, assign probabilities to any statement whatsoever, even when no random process is involved. Probability, for a Bayesian, is a way to represent an individuals degree of belief in a statement, given the evidence. Evidential probability, also called Bayesian probability, can be assigned to any statement whatsoever, even when no random process is involved, as a way to represent its subjective plausibility, or the degree to which the statement is supported by the available evidence. On most accounts, evidential probabilities are considered to be degrees of belief, defined in terms of dispositions to gamble at certain odds. The four main evidential interpretations are the classical interpretation, the subjective interpretation, the epistemic or inductive interpretation, and the logical interpretation. Theory: Like other theories, the theory of probability is a representation of probabilistic concepts in formal terms-that is, in terms that can be considered separately from their meaning. These formal terms are manipulated by the rules of mathematics and logic, and any results are then interpreted or translated back into the problem domain. There have been at least two successful attempts to formalize probability, namely the Kolmogorov formulation and the Cox formulation. In Kolmogorovs formulation, sets are interpreted as events and probability itself as a measure on a class of sets. In Coxs theorem, probability is taken as a primitive and the emphasis is on constructing a consistent assignment of probability values to propositions. In both cases, the laws of probability are the same, except for technical details. There are other methods for quantifying uncertainty, such as the Dempster-Shafer theory or possibility theory, but those are essentially different and not compatible with the laws of probability as they are usually understood. Mathematical Treatment: In mathematics, a probability of an event A is represented by a real number in the range from 0 to 1 and written as P(A), p(A) or Pr(A). An impossible event has a probability of 0, and a certain event has a probability of 1. However, the converses are not always true: probability 0 events are not always impossible, nor probability 1 events certain. The opposite or complement of an event A is the event (that is, the event of A not occurring); its probability is given by P(not A) = 1 P(A). As an example, the chance of not rolling a six on a six-sided die is 1 (chance of rolling a six) . If both the events A and B occur on a single performance of an experiment this is called the intersection or joint probability of A and B, denoted as . If two events, A and B are independent then the joint probability is For example: if two coins are flipped the chance of both being heads is If either event A or event B or both events occur on a single performance of an experiment this is called the union of the events A and B denoted as . If two events are mutually exclusive then the probability of either occurring is For example, the chance of rolling a 1 or 2 on a six-sided die is If the events are not mutually exclusive then Conditional probability is the probability of some event A, given the occurrence of some other event B. Conditional probability is written P(A|B), and is read the probability of A, given B. It is defined by If P(B) = 0 then is undefined. Applications: Two major applications of probability theory in everyday life are in risk assessment and in trade on commodity markets. Governments typically apply probabilistic methods in environmental regulation where it is called pathway analysis, often measuring well-being using methods that are stochastic in nature, and choosing projects to undertake based on statistical analyses of their probable effect on the population as a whole. A good example is the effect of the perceived probability of any widespread Middle East conflict on oil prices which have ripple effects in the economy as a whole. An assessment by a commodity trader that a war is more likely vs. less likely sends prices up or down, and signals other traders of that opinion. Accordingly, the probabilities are not assessed independently nor necessarily very rationally. The theory of behavioural finance emerged to describe the effect of such groupthink on pricing, on policy, and on peace and conflict. It can reasonably be said that the discovery of rigorous methods to assess and combine probability assessments has had a profound effect on modern society. Accordingly, it may be of some importance to most citizens to understand how odds and probability assessments are made, and how they contribute to reputations and to decisions, especially in a democracy. Another significant application of probability theory in everyday life is reliability. Many consumer products, such as automobiles and consumer electronics, utilize reliability theory in the design of the product in order to reduce the probability of failure. The probability of failure may be closely associated with the products warranty. Probability Of Winning A Lottery: Everyone knows that the probability of winning the lottery is a pretty big long shot. How long, however, you probably never really thought about. Your actual odds of winning the lottery depend on where you play, but single state lotteries usually have odds of about 18 million to 1 while multiple state lotteries have odds as high as 120 million to 1. If you have ever thought youd win the lottery, youre not alone. About one out of every three people in the United States think that winning the lottery is the only way to become financially secure in their life. This is a frightening statistic when you sit down and consider what the above odds really mean. Its time to take a long hard look at the chances of you winning the lottery. While winning the lottery may be something that you want, to show you your chances well take a look at a number of remote occurrences that you probably wouldnt like to have happen to you and probably dont think will ever happen to you but are still much more likely to happen to you than winning the lottery. How about the classic odds of being struck by lightning? The actual probability of this happening varies from year to year, but as a good estimate, the National Safety Council says between 70 and 120 people a year die in the US by lightning so lets take 100 as our base. With the US population being approximately 265 million people, that means that the chances of being killed by lightning are roughly 2,650,000 to 1. Not very likely. However you are still 6 to 45 times more likely to die from a lightning strike than you would be to win the lottery. Now nobody really wants to die from flesh eating bacteria, and with odds at about 1 million to 1, the chances that you will die that way are pretty slim. Then again, you are 18 to 120 times more likely to die this way than to win the lottery. What are the chances that if youre playing with a group of four that two of you will get a hole-in-one on the exact same hole? At 17 million to 1, theyre better than the chances of you winning the lottery. What about dying from a snake bite or bee sting? It probably isnt a way that you have imagined that you would leave the earth. Youre a whopping 180 to 1,200 times more likely to die from one of these incidents than win the lottery. Thats because the probability of dying from a snake bite or bee sting is about 100,000 to 1. Now I know that you are not a bad person and you dont imagine finding yourself on death row for a crime you committed anytime soon. Still, its a lot more likely that you will be legally executed than win the lottery. In fact, you are 30,000% to 200,000% more likely to die in a legal execution than to win the lottery. If none of the above has convinced you to stop playing the lottery, then Ill bring out my favorite lottery fact. If you drive 10 miles to purchase your lottery ticket, its three to twenty times more likely for you to be killed in a car accident along the way than to win the jackpot. Flipping Of Coin: Coin flipping or coin tossing is the practice of throwing a coin in the air to choose between two alternatives, sometimes to resolve a dispute between two parties. It is a form of sortition which inherently has only two possible and equally likely outcomes. Experimental and theoretical analysis of coin tossing has shown that the outcome is predictable. During coin flipping the coin is tossed into the air such that it rotates end-over-end several times. Either beforehand or when the coin is in the air, an interested party calls heads or tails, indicating which side of the coin that party is choosing. The other party is assigned the opposite side. Depending on custom, the coin may be caught, caught and inverted, or allowed to land on the ground. When the coin comes to rest, the toss is complete and the party who called or was assigned the face-up side is declared the winner. If the outcome is unclear the toss is repeated; for example the coin may, very rarely, land on edge, or fall down a drain. The coin may be any type as long as it has two distinct sides; it need not be a coin as such. Human intuition about conditional probability is often very poor and can give rise to some seemingly surprising observations. For example, if the successive tosses of a coin are recorded as a string of H and T, then for any trial of tosses, it is twice as likely that the triplet TTH will occur before THT than after it. It is three times as likely that THH will precede HHT. Are we likely to be struck by lightning? In the United States, an average of 80 people are killed by lightning each year. Considering being killed by lightning to be our favorable outcome (not such a favorable outcome!), the sample space contains the entire population of the United States (about 250 million). If we assume that all the people in our sample space are equally likely to be killed by lightning (so people who never go outside have the same chance of being killed by lightning as those who stand by flagpoles in large open fields during thunderstorms), the chance of being killed by lightning in the United States is equal to 80/250 million, or a probability of about .000032%. Clearly, you are much more likely to die in a car accident than by being struck by lightning. Probability in Our Lives: A basic understanding of probability makes it possible to understand everything from batting averages to the weather report or your chances of being struck by lightning! Probability is an important topic in mathematics because the probability of certain events happening or not happening can be important to us in the real world. Weather forecasting: Suppose a person wants to go on a picnic this afternoon, and the weather report says that the chance of rain is 70%? Will he ever wonder where that 70% came from? Forecasts like these can be calculated by the people who work for the National Weather Service when they look at all other days in their historical database that have the same weather characteristics (temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.) and determine that on 70% of similar days in the past, it rained. As weve seen, to find basic probability we divide the number of favorable outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes in our sample space. If were looking for the chance it will rain, this will be the number of days in our database that it rained divided by the total number of similar days in our database. If our meteorologist has data for 100 days with similar weather conditions (the sample space and therefore the denominator of our fraction), and on 70 of these days it rained (a favorable outcome), the probability of rain on the next similar day is 70/100 or 70%. Since a 50% probability means that an event is as likely to occur as not, 70%, which is greater than 50%, means that it is more likely to rain than not. But what is the probability that it wont rain? Remember that because the favourable outcomes represent all the possible ways that an event can occur, the sum of the various probabilities must equal 1 or 100%, so 100% 70% = 30%, and the probability that it wont rain is 30%. Bernoulli Trials On Probability: It happens very often in real life that an event may have only two outcomes that matter. For example, either you pass an exam or you do not pass an exam, either you get the job you applied for or you do not get the job, either your flight is delayed or it departs on time, etc. The probability theory abstraction of all such situations is a Bernoulli trial. Bernoulli trial is an experiment with only two possible outcomes that have positive probabilities p and q such that p + q = 1. The outcomes are said to be success and failure, and are commonly denoted as S and F or, say, 1 and 0. For example, when rolling a die, we may be only interested whether 1 shows up, in which case,naturally, P(S) = 1/6 and P(F) = 5/6. If, when rolling two dice, we are only interested whether the sum on two dice is 11, P(S) = 1/18, P(F) = 17/18. The Bernoulli process is a succession of independent Bernoulli trials with the same probability of success. Uses Of Probability In Our Daily Lives: I think we use probability routinely in our daily lives. When you get into a car and drive on public roads, we often assume that we have a low probability of being hit by another car. When you pull out onto a busy street crossing 2 lanes of traffic, you judge the speed of the traffic in those lanes. You assume you have a high probability of judging that speed correctly when you cross those lanes. If you did not make that assumption, you probably would not attempt to cross the lanes for fear of being hit by another car. We assume that we have a low probability of being hit by lightning or a meteor. When you eat with your hands, you assume your probability of getting sick from germs on your hands is low. Or you wouldnt eat with your hands. You could say the same of eating in a restaurant with reference to food you didnt prepare yourself. Within assuming many probabilities, I think wed constantly live in fear of what horrible things might happen to us. Summary of probabilities: Event Probability A not A A or B A and B A given B Other Cases Where Probability Can Be Observed: Youve seen it happen many times-a player in a dice game claims she is due for doubles; strangers discover that they have a mutual acquaintance and think that this must be more than a chance meeting; a friend plays the lottery obsessively or enters online contests with a persistent dream of winning. All these behaviors reflect how people perceive probability in daily life. People who lack an accurate sense of probability are easily drawn in by false claims and pseudoscience, are vulnerable to get-rich-quick schemes, and exhibit many of the behaviors mentioned above. The modeling and measurement of probabilities are fundamentals of mathematics that can be applied to the world around us. Every event, every measurement, every game, every accident, and even the nature of matter itself is understood through probabilistic models, yet few people have a good grasp of the nature of probability. Frequentists talk about probabilities only when dealing with experiments that are random and well-defined. The probability of a random event denotes the relative frequency of occurrence of an experiments outcome, when repeating the experiment. Frequentists consider probability to be the relative frequency in the long run of outcomes.[1] Bayesians, however, assign probabilities to any statement whatsoever, even when no random process is involved. Probability, for a Bayesian, is a way to represent an individuals degree of belief in a statement, or an objective degree of rational belief, given the evidence. Relation to randomness: In a deterministic universe, based on Newtonian concepts, there is no probability if all conditions are known. In the case of a roulette wheel, if the force of the hand and the period of that force are known, then the number on which the ball will stop would be a certainty. Of course, this also assumes knowledge of inertia and friction of the wheel, weight, smoothness and roundness of the ball, variations in hand speed during the turning and so forth. A probabilistic description can thus be more useful than Newtonian mechanics for analyzing the pattern of outcomes of repeated rolls of roulette wheel. Physicists face the same situation in kinetic theory of gases, where the system, while deterministic in principle, is so complex (with the number of molecules typically the order of magnitude of Avogadro constant 6.02 ·1023) that only statistical description of its properties is feasible. A revolutionary discovery of 20th century physics was the random character of all physical processes that occur at sub-atomic scales and are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. The wave function itself evolves deterministically as long as no observation is made, but, according to the prevailing Copenhagen interpretation, the randomness caused by the wave function collapsing when an observation is made, is fundamental. This means that probability theory is required to describe nature. Others never came to terms with the loss of determinism. Albert Einstein famously remarked in a letter to Max Born: I am convinced that God does not play dice. Although alternative viewpoints exist, such as that of quantum de-coherence being the cause of an apparent random collapse, at present there is a firm consensus among physicists that probability theory is necessary to describe quantum phenomena.